num_tosses = 100
heads = sum([random.random() > 0.5 for _ in range(num_tosses)])
tails = num_tosses - heads
print("heads, tails: ", [heads, tails])Probability and Statistics
Dive into Deep Learning · §1.6
Reasoning under uncertainty
sampling · distributions · Bayes · expectation
Machine learning is inference under uncertainty
Motivation
- A model rarely returns one answer: it returns a distribution over answers.
- Training maximizes likelihood; most losses are negative log-likelihoods.
- Generalization, regularization, and the Bayesian view all rest on the same handful of rules.
Probability reasons forward: model → data. Statistics reasons backward: data → model. We build both, on one running example.
01
From data to a probability
sampling, frequencies, the law of large numbers
A coin of unknown bias
Estimating from data
We find a coin and want P(\text{heads}), but nobody tells us its value. The plan: toss it many times and count.
A single batch of 100 tosses with random.random() already lands near 50/50, but never exactly, because sampling has variance:
heads, tails: [52, 48]Multinomial draws 100 tosses in one call
Estimating from data
A cleaner tool: a Multinomial over {heads, tails} with probabilities [0.5, 0.5] returns the count vector directly:
<tf.Tensor: shape=(2,), dtype=float32, numpy=array([51., 49.], dtype=float32)>More data, tighter estimate
Estimating from data
With 10,000 tosses the frequencies sit far closer to the true \tfrac{1}{2}:
<tf.Tensor: shape=(2,), dtype=float32, numpy=array([0.501, 0.499], dtype=float32)>The law of large numbers: as the number of trials n \to \infty, the empirical frequency converges to the true probability.
The estimate converges at a 1/√n rate
Estimating from data
The running estimate settles toward 0.5 as the sample count grows:
The error shrinks like 1/\sqrt{n}: to halve it you need 4× the data.
A first glimpse of the real question of statistics: how sure we are of what we estimate.
The 1/√n law, measured: slope −½
Estimating from data
Why 1/\sqrt{n}? Each toss has variance p(1-p); averaging n independent tosses gives
\textrm{Var}[\hat{p}] = \frac{p(1-p)}{n}.
Estimating p from 1000 batches at each n, the standard deviation of the estimates follows the predicted 0.5/\sqrt{n} line: slope -\tfrac12 on log–log axes.
02
The formal language
sample spaces, events, random variables
Three axioms generate every rule
Formal treatment
Every outcome lives in a sample space \mathcal{S}; an event is a measurable subset. A probability assigns each event a number in [0,1] obeying three rules (Kolmogorov):
- P(\mathcal{A}) \ge 0;
- P(\mathcal{S}) = 1;
- disjoint events add.
Everything else follows, e.g. inclusion–exclusion: P(\mathcal{A}\cup\mathcal{B}) = P(\mathcal{A}) + P(\mathcal{B}) - P(\mathcal{A}\cap\mathcal{B}).
Mass sits on points; density needs intervals
Formal treatment
A random variable maps outcomes to values. Discrete ones (a die) place mass on points; continuous ones (a height) spread density along the line.
For a continuous variable an exact value has probability zero: only intervals carry probability, obtained by integrating the density.
03
Joint, marginal, conditional
how two variables relate, and Bayes’ theorem
One table holds everything
Multiple variables
The joint P(A,B) lists every combination. From it:
- sum a row or column → a marginal P(A) or P(B);
- renormalize one row → a conditional P(B \mid A{=}a) = \dfrac{P(A{=}a,\, B)}{P(A{=}a)}.
Conditioning = restrict to the slice where A{=}a, then rescale so it sums to 1.
Bayes’ theorem reverses the conditioning
Multiple variables
Write the joint two ways, P(A,B) = P(B\mid A)\,P(A) = P(A\mid B)\,P(B), and equate:
P(A \mid B) = \frac{P(B \mid A)\,P(A)}{P(B)}.
This flips a hard direction into an easy one: inferring a cause A from an effect B when only P(B \mid A) is known.
posterior \propto likelihood \times prior: \;P(H \mid E) \propto P(E \mid H)\,P(H).
Independence, and explaining away
Multiple variables
Independence, A \perp B, means P(A,B) = P(A)\,P(B). But conditioning changes dependence: a common cause links two variables until you condition on it; a collider (common effect) makes independent causes dependent once you do: explaining away.
04
Bayes in action: the HIV test
why a “99% accurate” test can still mislead
A test that never misses can still mislead
Worked example
The test catches every true HIV case but has a 1% false-positive rate, and the disease is rare:
\begin{aligned} P(D{=}1 \mid H{=}1) &= 1.00 \\ P(D{=}1 \mid H{=}0) &= 0.01 \\ \text{prior } P(H{=}1) &= 0.0015 \end{aligned}
We want the posterior P(H{=}1 \mid D{=}1). Intuition says “almost certainly sick”, but Bayes disagrees. Let us count.
Of ~115 positives, only 15 are real
Worked example
Among 10,000 people only ~15 truly have HIV, but ~100 healthy people also test positive:
P(H{=}1 \mid D{=}1) \approx \tfrac{15}{115} \approx 13\%.
The base rate dominates a rare-disease test.
A second positive: 0.15% → 13% → 83%
Worked example
A second, independent positive test multiplies the evidence: applying Bayes again drives the posterior from the 0.15\% prior to 13\%, then to 83\%.
A simulation of two million patients gives a coarse check of the exact 0.8307; its Monte Carlo standard error is about 0.006:
<tf.Tensor: shape=(), dtype=float32, numpy=0.8238012790679932>05
Summarizing a distribution
expectation, variance, covariance
Expectation: the probability-weighted average
Summaries
E[X] = \sum_x x\,P(X{=}x).
It is the balance point of the distribution. For an investment paying 0, 2\times, or 10\times with probabilities 0.5, 0.4, 0.1, the expected return is 1.8\times.
Variance: same mean, different risk
Summaries
\textrm{Var}[X] = E\big[(X - E[X])^2\big] = E[X^2] - E[X]^2.
Two investments can share a mean yet differ wildly in spread. The standard deviation \sigma = \sqrt{\textrm{Var}[X]} reports it in the original units.
Covariance: the sign says how they move
Summaries
Covariance is the expected product of the two centered variables; its sign says whether they move together (magnitude is scale-dependent; rescale by the standard deviations to get the correlation). Stacked over a vector, it becomes the covariance matrix \boldsymbol{\Sigma}, which is symmetric and used throughout the chapters ahead:
06
Uncertainty & guarantees
what kind, and how far can it stray?
Two kinds of uncertainty
Discussion
Aleatoric uncertainty is intrinsic randomness: the next fair-coin flip stays 50/50 no matter how much data you gather. Epistemic uncertainty is about unknown parameters, and it shrinks as data accumulates.
Tail bounds: guarantees without the distribution
Discussion
Even without knowing the distribution, we can bound how often a nonnegative variable lands far out. Markov: P(X \ge a) \le \frac{E[X]}{a}.
Apply it to (X-\mu)^2 to get Chebyshev; sharper bounds (Hoeffding, Bernstein) and their consequences for generalization are developed in the concentration-and-generalization section.
Recap
Wrap-up
- Sample → count → estimate; the LLN converges at 1/\sqrt{n} (slope -\tfrac12, measured).
- Axioms generate every rule; events combine by inclusion–exclusion.
- The joint yields marginals (sum) and conditionals (renormalize).
- Bayes reverses conditioning: posterior \propto likelihood \times prior.
- Base rates rule rare-disease tests: 13\% after one positive, 0.8307 after two.
- Expectation / variance / covariance summarize a distribution.
- Tail bounds (Markov → Chebyshev) guarantee concentration even when the distribution is unknown.